Can Florence Reform and Come Back Again?

April 04, 2022 Post a Comment

Italian Dominican reformer (1452–1498)

Girolamo Savonarola
Girolamo Savonarola by Fra Bartolomeo, c. 1498, Museo di San Marco, Florence.
De facto Ruler of Florence
Reign	Nov 1494 – 23 May 1498
Predecessor	Piero de' Medici
Successor	Piero Soderini

Born	(1452-09-21)21 September 1452 Ferrara, Duchy of Ferrara
Died	23 May 1498(1498-05-23) (aged 45) Florence, Republic of Florence
Cause of death	Hanged and burned^[1]
Male parent	Niccolò di Michele dalla Savonarola
Mother	Elena Bonacolsi
Signature
Philosophy career

Era	Renaissance
Notable ideas	Autonomous Theocracy^[ii]Divineness^[3]
Influences Aristotle Thomas Aquinas Augustine of Hippo
Influenced Martin Luther Henry VIII John Calvin Joseph Schnitzer Luigi Sturzo Philip Neri Catherine of Ricci Niccolò Machiavelli Pius X Pius XII

Girolamo Savonarola

Congregations served	Florentine Dominican Order

Girolamo Savonarola (, ,^[4] ^[5] ^[6] Italian: [dʒiˈrɔːlamo savonaˈrɔːla]; 21 September 1452 – 23 May 1498) or Jerome Savonarola ^[vii] was an Italian Dominican friar from Ferrara and preacher active in Renaissance Florence. He was known for his prophecies of civic glory, the destruction of secular art and culture, and his calls for Christian renewal. He denounced clerical abuse, despotic rule, and the exploitation of the poor.

In September 1494, when Charles VIII of French republic invaded Italy and threatened Florence, such prophecies seemed on the verge of fulfilment. While Savonarola intervened with the French rex, the Florentines expelled the ruling Medicis and, at the friar's urging, established a "popular" republic. Declaring that Florence would exist the New Jerusalem, the world middle of Christianity and "richer, more powerful, more glorious than always",^[viii] he instituted an extreme puritanical campaign, enlisting the agile help of Florentine youth.

In 1495 when Florence refused to join Pope Alexander Half-dozen'southward Holy League against the French, the Vatican summoned Savonarola to Rome. He disobeyed and further defied the pope by preaching under a ban, highlighting his entrada for reform with processions, bonfires of the vanities, and pious theatricals. In retaliation, the pope excommunicated him in May 1497, and threatened to place Florence under an interdict. A trial past fire proposed by a rival Florentine preacher in April 1498 to examination Savonarola'southward divine mandate turned into a fiasco, and popular opinion turned against him. Savonarola and two of his supporting friars were imprisoned. On 23 May 1498, Church and civil regime condemned, hanged, and burned the three friars in the principal foursquare of Florence.

Savonarola's devotees, the Piagnoni, kept his cause of republican liberty and religious reform alive well into the following century, although the Medici—restored to power in 1512 with the help of the papacy—eventually broke the motion. Some Protestants, including Martin Luther himself, consider Savonarola to be a vital precursor to the Reformation.^[9]

Early years [edit]

Savonarola was born on 21 September 1452 in Ferrara to Niccolò di Michele and Elena. His father Niccolò was built-in in Ferrara to a family originally from Padua; his mother, Elena, claimed a lineage from the Bonacossi family of Mantua. She and Niccolò had seven children, of whom Girolamo was tertiary. His granddaddy, Michele Savonarola, a noted and successful physician and polymath, oversaw Girolamo's education. The family amassed a great deal of wealth from Michele'due south medical practice.

After his grandfather's death in 1468, Savonarola may have attended the public school run by Battista Guarino, son of Guarino da Verona, where he would have received his introduction to the classics every bit well every bit to the poetry and writings of Petrarch, father of Renaissance humanism. Earning an arts degree at the University of Ferrara, he prepared to enter medical school, following in his grandpa's footsteps. At some point, yet, he abandoned his career intentions.

In his early poems, he expresses his preoccupation with the land of the Church and of the earth. He began to write poetry of an apocalyptic aptitude, notably "On the Ruin of the World" (1472) and "On the Ruin of the Church" (1475), in which he singled out the papal court at Rome for special obloquy.^[10] Virtually the same time, he seems to have been thinking nigh a life in religion. Every bit he afterward told his biographer, a sermon he heard past a preacher in Faenza persuaded him to abandon the earth.^[xi] Nearly of his biographers reject or ignore the account of his younger brother and follower, Maurelio (after fra Mauro), that in his youth Girolamo had been spurned by a neighbor, Laudomia Strozzi, to whom he proposed union.^[12] True or not, in a alphabetic character he wrote to his begetter when he left abode to join the Dominican Order he hints at being troubled by desires of the flesh.^[13] In that location is as well a story that on the eve of his deviation he dreamed that he was cleansed of such thoughts by a shower of icy water which prepared him for the ascetic life.^[14] In the unfinished treatise he left behind, later called "De contemptu Mundi", or "On Contempt for the World", he calls upon readers to fly from this earth of infidelity, sodomy, murder, and envy.

Savonarola studied Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, he as well studied the scriptures and even memorized parts of it.^[15]

On 25 April 1475, Girolamo Savonarola went to Bologna where he knocked on the door of the Friary of San Domenico, of the Order of Friars Preacher, and asked to be admitted. As he told his male parent in his farewell letter of the alphabet, he wanted to get a knight of Christ.

Friar [edit]

In the convent, Savonarola took the vow of obedience proper to his club, and after a year was ordained to the priesthood. He studied Scripture, logic, Aristotelian philosophy and Thomistic theology in the Dominican studium, practised preaching to his fellow friars, and engaged in disputations. He so matriculated in the theological faculty to prepare for an advanced degree. Fifty-fifty as he connected to write devotional works and to deepen his spiritual life, he was openly critical of what he perceived every bit the decline in convent austerity. In 1478 his studies were interrupted when he was sent to the Dominican priory of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Ferrara as assistant master of novices. The consignment might take been a normal, temporary break from the bookish routine, simply in Savonarola'southward case it was a turning signal. One caption is that he had alienated certain of his superiors, particularly fra Vincenzo Bandelli, or Bandello, a professor at the studium and time to come master general of the Dominicans, who resented the young friar's opposition to modifying the Order'south rules against the buying of belongings.^[16] In 1482, instead of returning to Bologna to resume his studies, Savonarola was assigned as lector, or teacher, in the Convent of San Marco in Florence. In San Marco, fra Girolamo (Savonarola) taught logic to the novices, wrote instructional manuals on ethics, logic, philosophy and government, equanimous devotional works, and prepared his sermons for local congregations.^[17] As he recorded in his notes, his preaching was not altogether successful. Florentines were put off by his foreign-sounding Ferrarese spoken communication, his strident voice and (especially to those who valued humanist rhetoric) his inelegant manner.^[18]

While waiting for a friend in the Convent of San Giorgio, he was studying Scripture when he suddenly conceived "virtually vii reasons" why the Church building was virtually to be scourged and renewed.^[xix] He broached these apocalyptic themes in San Gimignano, where he went every bit Lenten preacher in 1485 and once more in 1486, merely a twelvemonth later, when he left San Marco for a new assignment, he had said nothing of his "San Giorgio revelations" in Florence.^[20]

Preacher [edit]

For the next several years Savonarola lived equally an itinerant preacher with a message of repentance and reform in the cities and convents of north Italian republic. As his letters to his mother and his writings show, his confidence and sense of mission grew along with his widening reputation.^[21] In 1490, he was reassigned to San Marco. It seems that this was due to the initiative of the humanist philosopher-prince, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who had heard Savonarola in a formal disputation in Reggio Emilia and been impressed with his learning and piety. Pico was in problem with the Church for some of his unorthodox philosophical ideas (the famous "900 theses") and was living under the protection of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the Medici de facto ruler of Florence.^[22] To have Savonarola beside him equally a spiritual counsellor, he persuaded Lorenzo that the friar would bring prestige to the convent of San Marco and its Medici patrons.^[23] After some delay, apparently due to the interference of his former professor fra Vincenzo Bandelli, now Vicar Full general of the Guild, Lorenzo succeeded in bringing Savonarola back to Florence, where he arrived in May or June of that year.

Prophet [edit]

Illustration from Compendio di revelatione, 1496, past Savonarola

Savonarola preached on the Outset Epistle of John and on the Book of Revelation, cartoon such large crowds that he eventually moved to the Cathedral. Without mentioning names, he made pointed allusions to tyrants who usurped the freedom of the people, and he excoriated their allies, the rich and powerful who neglected and exploited the poor.^[24] Complaining of the evil lives of a decadent clergy, he now called for repentance and renewal before the arrival of a divine scourge. Scoffers dismissed him as an over-excited zealot and "preacher of the desperate" and sneered at his growing band of followers every bit Piagnoni—"Weepers" or "Wailers", an epithet they adopted. In 1492 Savonarola warned of "the Sword of the Lord over the earth quickly and soon" and envisioned terrible tribulations to Rome. Around 1493 (these sermons have not survived) he began to prophesy that a New Cyrus was coming over the mountains to begin the renewal of the Church.^[25]

In September 1494 King Charles 8 of France crossed the Alps with a formidable army, throwing Italy into political chaos.^[26] Many viewed the arrival of King Charles as proof of Savonarola'due south gift of prophecy. Charles, however, avant-garde on Florence, sacking Tuscan strongholds and threatening to punish the city for refusing to support his trek. As the populace took to the streets to expel Piero the Unfortunate, Lorenzo de' Medici's son and successor, Savonarola led a delegation to the camp of the French king in mid-November 1494. He pressed Charles to spare Florence and enjoined him to take up his divinely appointed role equally the reformer of the Church. Subsequently a curt, tense occupation of the city, and another intervention past fra Girolamo (as well every bit the promise of a huge subsidy), the French resumed their journey southward on 28 November 1494. Savonarola at present declared that by answering his call to penitence, the Florentines had begun to build a new Ark of Noah which had saved them from the waters of the divine alluvion. Even more sensational was the message in his sermon of ten Dec:

I announce this practiced news to the urban center, that Florence volition be more glorious, richer, more than powerful than she has ever been; First, glorious in the sight of God as well every bit of men: and you, O Florence will be the reformation of all Italia, and from here the renewal volition brainstorm and spread everywhere, because this is the navel of Italy. Your counsels volition reform all past the calorie-free and grace that God volition give yous. Second, O Florence, you will accept innumerable riches, and God will multiply all things for you. Third, you will spread your empire, and thus you volition accept ability temporal and spiritual.^[27]

This phenomenal guarantee may have been an innuendo to the traditional patriotic myth of Florence as the new Rome, which Savonarola would have encountered in his readings in Florentine history. In whatsoever case, it encompassed both temporal power and spiritual leadership.

Reformer [edit]

With Savonarola's communication and support (as a not-citizen and cleric he was ineligible to concur office), a Savonarolan political "party", dubbed "the Frateschi", took shape and steered the friar's program through the councils. The oligarchs most compromised by their service to the Medici were barred from office. A new constitution enfranchised the artisan class, opened minor civic offices to selection by lot, and granted every denizen in good continuing the correct to a vote in a new parliament, the Consiglio Maggiore, or Great Council. At Savonarola'southward urging, the Frateschi authorities, after months of contend, passed a "Police force of Entreatment" to limit the longtime practice of using exile and capital punishment as factional weapons.^[28] Savonarola declared a new era of "universal peace". On 13 January 1495 he preached his great Renovation Sermon to a huge audition in the Cathedral, recalling that he had begun prophesying in Florence four years before, although the divine light had come to him "more than than 15, maybe twenty years ago". He at present claimed that he had predicted the deaths of Lorenzo de' Medici and of Pope Innocent 8 in 1492 and the coming of the sword to Italia—the invasion of King Charles of French republic. As he had foreseen, God had called Florence, "the navel of Italia", every bit his favourite and he repeated: if the city continued to do penance and began the work of renewal it would have riches, glory and power.^[29]

If the Florentines had whatever uncertainty that the promise of worldly power and celebrity had heavenly sanction, Savonarola emphasised this in a sermon of i April 1495, in which he described his mystical journey to the Virgin Mary in heaven. At the celestial throne Savonarola presents the Holy Mother a crown made past the Florentine people and presses her to reveal their future. Mary warns that the way will exist hard both for the urban center and for him, but she assures him that God volition fulfil his promises: Florence will be "more glorious, more powerful and richer than ever, extending its wings farther than anyone tin can imagine". She and her heavenly minions will protect the city against its enemies and back up its alliance with the French. In the New Jerusalem that is Florence peace and unity will reign.^[30] Based on such visions, Savonarola promoted theocracy, and declared Christ the king of Florence.^[31] ^[32] He saw sacred fine art equally a tool to promote this worldview, and he was therefore only opposed to secular art, which he saw as worthless and potentially damaging.^[33]

Buoyed past liberation and prophetic promise, the Florentines embraced Savonarola's campaign to rid the urban center of "vice". At his repeated insistence, new laws were passed against "sodomy" (which included male person and female person same-sex relations), infidelity, public drunkenness, and other moral transgressions, while his lieutenant Fra Silvestro Maruffi organised boys and young men to patrol the streets to curb immodest dress and behaviour.^[34] For a time, Pope Alexander Half dozen (1492–1503) tolerated friar Girolamo's strictures against the Church, simply he was moved to anger when Florence declined to bring together his new Holy League against the French invader, and blamed it on Savonarola's pernicious influence. An exchange of letters between the pope and the friar ended in an impasse which Savonarola tried to pause by sending the pope "a trivial volume" recounting his prophetic career and describing some of his more dramatic visions. This was the Compendium of Revelations, a self-dramatization which was 1 of the farthest-reaching and most popular of his writings.^[35]

The pope was not mollified. He summoned the friar to appear earlier him in Rome, and when Savonarola refused, pleading ill health and confessing that he was afraid of beingness attacked on the journey, Alexander banned him from farther preaching. For some months Savonarola obeyed, only when he saw his influence slipping he defied the pope and resumed his sermons, which became more violent in tone. He non only attacked undercover enemies at home whom he rightly suspected of beingness in league with the papal Curia, he condemned the conventional, or "tepid", Christians who were slow to respond to his calls. He dramatised his moral entrada with special Masses for the youth, processions, bonfires of the vanities and religious theatre in San Marco. He and his close friend, the humanist poet Girolamo Benivieni, composed lauds and other devotional songs for the Carnival processions of 1496, 1497 and 1498, replacing the bawdy Carnival songs of the era of Lorenzo de' Medici.^[36] These continued to exist copied and performed after his decease, along with songs composed by Piagnoni in his memory. A number of them take survived.^[37]

Monument of Girolamo Savonarola

Proto-Protestant [edit]

Savonarola like the later reformers, desired a return to the "early on apostolic simplicity".^[38] Many Protestants view Savonarola as a forerunner to the reformation with respect to his views on "the doctrine of justification, his emphasis on individual organized religion, his emphasis on the authority of scripture and compassion for the poor".^[39] ^[nine] ^[xl] The writings of Savonarola spread widely to Germany and Switzerland, and due to Savonarola'due south life and death, many people started to come across the Papacy as corrupted and sought a new reform of the church. Many people saw him as a martyr, including Martin Luther, who was influenced by Savonarola'southward writings. Savonarola'southward beliefs on the doctrine of justification is similar in some aspects to Martin Luther's teachings, stating that we are not justified by ourselves. Savonarola possibly even influenced John Calvin, only this is a matter of historical fence.^[41]

Savonarola never abandoned the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church; for example, Savonarola held to a belief in seven sacraments and that the Church of Rome is "the female parent of all other churches and the pope its head."^[ix] Notwithstanding his protests against papal corruption, reliance on the bible as the master guide link Savonarola with the afterwards reformation.^[40] Savonarola himself held scripture as a very high authority, he himself stated: "I preach the regeneration of the Church building, taking the Scriptures every bit my sole guide.".^[42]

It is untrue that God's grace is obtained by pre-existing works of merit equally though works and deserts were the cause of predestination. On the opposite, these are the result of predestination. Tell me, Peter; tell me, O Magdalene, wherefore are ye in paradise? Confess that non by your own merits have ye obtained salvation, but by the goodness of God — Girolamo Savonarola.^[9]

Other quotes from Savonarola such as "Non by their own deservings, O Lord, or past their own works accept they been saved, lest any man should be able to boast, but because information technology seemed good in Thy sight." fabricated Martin Luther say that even though the theology of Savonarola wasn't perfect, it was still an example of true Christian theology. Martin Luther later stated most Savonarola:^[9]

Christ canonizes Savonarola through us even though popes and papists flare-up to pieces over it — Martin Luther^[9]

Savonarola believed that the pope is fallible and even criticized the pope and papal corruptions himself. Savonarola even prophecied that Rome will come under judgement from God.^[42]

the Pope may command me to do something that contravenes the police of Christian dearest or the Gospel. But, if he did so command, I would say to him, thou art no shepherd. Non the Roman Church, but thou errest Who are the fat kine of Bashan on the mountains of Samaria? I say they are the courtesans of Italia and Rome. Or, are there none? A thousand are too few for Rome, 10,000, 12,000, 14,000 are too few for Rome. Prepare thyself, O Rome, for peachy will be thy punishments - Girolamo Savonarola^[42]

Catholic sources, still, criticize the inclusion of Savonarola as a Protestant forerunner, because much of his theology still aligned with Rome.^[43] Despite inspiring some Protestant reformers, Savonarola as well influenced some leaders of the Counter-Reformation.^[41]

Excommunication and death [edit]

The execution of Fra Girolamo, Fra Domenico, and Fra Silvestro Maruffi

"The trial of friar Girolamo Savonarola" (Processo di fra Girolamo Savonarola), 1498

On 12 May 1497, Pope Alexander VI excommunicated^[44] Savonarola and threatened the Florentines with an interdict if they persisted in harbouring him. Afterward describing the Church equally a whore, Savonarola was excommunicated for heresy and sedition.

On 18 March 1498, subsequently much argue and steady pressure from a worried government, Savonarola withdrew from public preaching. Under the stress of excommunication, he composed his spiritual masterpiece, the Triumph of the Cross, a celebration of the victory of the Cross over sin and death and an exploration of what information technology means to be a Christian. This he summed upwards in the theological virtue of caritas, or love. In loving their neighbours, Christians return the dear which they have received from their Creator and Savior.^[45] Savonarola hinted at performing miracles to prove his divine mission, but when a rival Franciscan preacher proposed to test that mission by walking through burn down, he lost control of public discourse. Without consulting him, his confidant Fra Domenico da Pescia offered himself equally his surrogate and Savonarola felt he could not afford to refuse. The commencement trial by fire in Florence in over four hundred years was set for 7 April.^[46] A oversupply filled the primal square, eager to meet if God would intervene, and if so, on which side. The nervous contestants and their delegations delayed the offset of the contest for hours. A sudden rain drenched the spectators and regime officials cancelled the proceedings. The crowd disbanded angrily; the burden of proof had been on Savonarola and he was blamed for the fiasco. A mob assaulted the convent of San Marco.

Fra Girolamo, Fra Domenico, and Fra Silvestro Maruffi were arrested and imprisoned. Under torture Savonarola confessed to having invented his prophecies and visions, and so recanted, and then confessed again.^[47] In his prison cell in the tower of the regime palace he equanimous meditations on Psalms 51 and 31.^[48] On the morning of 23 May 1498, the three friars were led out into the principal square where, before a tribunal of high clerics and government officials, they were condemned as heretics and schismatics, and sentenced to dice forthwith. Stripped of their Dominican garments in ritual deposition, they mounted the scaffold in their sparse white shirts. Each on a divide gallows, they were hanged, while fires were ignited below them to consume their bodies. To forbid devotees from searching for relics, their ashes were carted away and scattered in the Arno.^[49]

Aftermath [edit]

Resisting censorship and exile, the friars of San Marco fostered a cult of "the three martyrs" and venerated Savonarola as a saint. They encouraged women in local convents and surrounding towns to find mystical inspiration in his example,^[50] and, by preserving many of his sermons and writings, they helped keep his political as well as his religious ideas alive.^[51] The render of the Medici in 1512 concluded the Savonarola-inspired republic and intensified pressure confronting the movement, although both were briefly revived in 1527 when the Medici were in one case once again forced out.^[52] In 1530 Pope Cloudless Vii (Giulio de' Medici), with the help of soldiers of the Holy Roman Emperor, restored Medici rule, and Florence became a hereditary dukedom. Savonarola's devotees, the Piagnoni, were silenced, hunted, tortured, imprisoned and exiled, and the movement, at to the lowest degree as a political force, came to an end.

Savonarola'due south contemporary Niccolò Machiavelli discusses the friar in Chapter Six of his book The Prince, writing:^[53]

If Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus had been unarmed they could non have enforced their constitutions for long—equally happened in our time to Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who was ruined with his new order of things immediately the multitude believed in him no longer, and he had no means of keeping steadfast those who believed or of making the unbelievers to believe.

Savonarolan religious ideas found a reception elsewhere. In Frg and Switzerland the early Protestant reformers, most notably Martin Luther himself, read some of the friar's writings and praised him every bit a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by religion alone. In French republic many of his works were translated and published and Savonarola came to be regarded equally a precursor of evangelical, or Huguenot, reform.^[54] Inside the Dominican Club Savonarola was repackaged equally an innocuous, purely devotional figure ("the evolving image of a Counter-Reformation saintly prelate"^[55]), and in this chivalrous and unthreatening guise his memory lived on. Philip Neri, founder of the Oratorians, a Florentine who had been educated past the San Marco Dominicans, also defended Savonarola's retention. In Wittenberg, the hometown of Martin Luther, a statue of Girolamo Savonarola was erected to honour him.^[39]

In the mid-nineteenth century, the "New Piagnoni" plant inspiration in the friar's writings and sermons for the Italian national awakening known as the Risorgimento. By emphasising his political activism over his puritanism and cultural conservatism they restored Savonarola'south voice for radical political change. The venerable Counter Reformation icon ceded to the peppery Renaissance reformer. This somewhat anachronistic image, fortified by much new scholarship, informed the major new biography by Pasquale Villari, who regarded Savonarola's preaching against Medici despotism every bit the model for the Italian struggle for freedom and national unification.^[56] In Germany, the Catholic theologian and church historian Joseph Schnitzer edited and published contemporary sources which illuminated Savonarola's career. In 1924 he crowned his vast research with a comprehensive report of Savonarola'southward life and times in which he presented the friar every bit the last best hope of the Catholic Church building earlier the catastrophe of the Protestant Reformation.^[57] In the Italian People's Party founded by Don Luigi Sturzo in 1919, Savonarola was revered every bit a champion of social justice, and after 1945 he was held upward as a model of reformed Catholicism past leaders of the Christian Autonomous Party. From this milieu, in 1952, came the 3rd of the major Savonarola biographies, the Vita di Girolamo Savonarola by Roberto Ridolfi.^[58] For the next half century Ridolfi was the guardian of the friar'south saintly memory every bit well as the dean of Savonarola research which he helped grow into a scholarly industry. Today, with nearly of Savonarola's treatises and sermons and many of the gimmicky sources (chronicles, diaries, government documents and literary works) bachelor in disquisitional editions, scholars can provide fresh, improve informed assessments of his graphic symbol and his place in the Renaissance, the Reformation and modern European history. The nowadays-day Church has considered his beatification.^[59]

Bibliography [edit]

Savonarola's writings [edit]

Contra li astrologi, dopo il 1497

Almost thirty volumes of Savonarola's sermons and writings accept so far been published in the Edizione nazionale delle Opere di Girolamo Savonarola (Rome, Angelo Belardetti, 1953 to the present). For editions of the 15th and 16th centuries see Catalogo delle edizioni di Girolamo Savonarola (secc. xv–16) ed. P. Scapecchi (Florence, 1998, ISBN 9788887027228).

Prison house Meditations on Psalms 51 and 31 ed. John Patrick Donnelly, S.J. (ISBN 9780874627008)
The Compendium of Revelations in Bernard McGinn ed. Apocalyptic Spirituality: Treatises and Messages of Lactantius, Adso of Montier-en-Der, Joachim of Fiore, the Franciscan Spirituals, Savonarola (New York, 1979, ISBN 9780809122424)
Savonarola A Guide to Righteous Living and Other Works ed. Konrad Eisenbichler (Toronto, Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2003, ISBN 9780772720207)
Selected Writings of Girolamo Savonarola Religion and Politics, 1490–1498 ed. Anne Borelli and Maria Pastore Passaro (New Oasis, Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 9780300129045)

Savonarola, Girolamo (1497). Contra gli astrologi (in Italian). Firenze: Bartolomeo de' Libri.

Savonarola, Girolamo (1536). Contra gli astrologi (in Italian). Venezia: Bernardino Stagnino (1.).

Cultural influence [edit]

Music [edit]

Charles Villiers Stanford wrote an opera titled Savonarola, which had its premiere in Hamburg on 18 Apr 1884.^[60]
Luigi Dallapiccola used text from Savonarola's Meditation on the Psalm My hope is in Thee, O Lord in his 1938 choral work Canti di prigionia.
William Byrd used the text of Savonarola's Infelix ego in his work by the same name as part of the Cantiones Sacrae 1591 xxiv–xvi.

Fiction [edit]

Lenau, Nikolaus, Savonarola (poem, 1837)^[61]
Eliot, George, Romola (novel, 1863)^[62]
Mann, Thomas, Fiorenza (play, 1909)^[63]
Herrmann, Bernhard, Savonarola im Feuer (1909)^[64]
The 1917 story, "'Savonarola' Brownish," by Max Beerbohm (published in Seven Men), concerns an aspiring playwright, writer of an unfinished, unintentionally absurd retelling of the life of Savonarola. (His four-deed play took him 9 years to write, is xviii pages long, and features a romance between Savonarola and Lucrezia Borgia, and likewise cameos by Dante Alighieri, Leonardo da Vinci, and St. Francis of Assisi.)
Van Wyck, William, Savonarola: A Biography in Dramatic Episodes (1926)^[65]
Hines and King, Fire of Vanity (play, 1930)
Salacrou, Armand, Le terre est ronde (1938)
The novel Kámen a bolest ("suffering and the stone") (1942), Karel Schulz'south historical novel about the life of Michelangelo, features Savonarola as an of import character.
Bacon, Wallace A., Savonarola: A Play in Ix Scenes (1950)
The Agony and the Ecstasy (1961), Irving Stone's novelisation of Michelangelo'due south life, depicts the events in Florence from the Medici's signal of view.
The fourth segment of Walerian Borowczyk's 1974 anthology film, Immoral Tales, is set during the reign of Pope Alexander 6. A character called "Friar Hyeronimus Savonarola", played by Philippe Desboeuf, holds a sermon in which he publicly condemns the corruption of the church building and the sexual depravity of the papacy. Borowczyk juxtaposes Savonarola'south sermon with the Pope enjoying a threesome with his daughter, Lucrezia Borgia, and his son, Cesare Borgia. Savonarola is arrested and publicly burned to death.
In the 1976 film Network, the network programming executive played by Faye Dunaway refers to crusading reporter Howard Beale every bit "a magnificent messianic figure, inveighing against the hypocrisies of our times, a strip Savonarola, Monday through Friday".
In her novel The Passion of New Eve (1977), Angela Carter describes the preaching leader of an army of god-fearing child soldiers as a "precocious Savonarola".
The novel The Palace (1978) past Chelsea Quinn Yarbro features Savonarola as the main adversary of the vampire Saint Germain.
The historical fantasy novel The Dragon Waiting (1984) past John M. Ford has Savonarola equally i of the antagonists in chapter three, prepare in the Medici court.
The novel Sabbath's Theater (1995) past Philip Roth makes reference to Savonarola.
The novel The Birth of Venus (2003 ) by Sarah Dunant makes extensive references to Savonarola.
In episode 7 (2003) of the manga-anime series Gunslinger Girl, two of the protagonists, Jean and Rico, visit Florence. There Savonarola is mentioned among other famous people who lived in the city, while he shares his surname with one of the series antagonists.
The novel The Dominion of 4 (2004) by Ian Caldwell and Dustin Thomason makes extensive references to Savonarola.
In the novel I, Mona Lisa (2006) (United kingdom title Painting Mona Lisa) by Jeanne Kalogridis, he is given a negative slant, every bit the Medicis are portrayed as sympathetic and noble.
The novel The Enchantress of Florence (2008) by Salman Rushdie
The young adult novel The Smile (2008) by Donna Jo Napoli shows Savonarola every bit he was observed by a young Mona Lisa.
In the novel Wolf Hall (2009) by Hilary Mantel, the Bonfire of the Vanities is brought up in a story past the protagonist, Thomas Cromwell.
Savonarola appears equally a main assassination target in the videogame Assassin's Creed II (2009).
In the novel, The Poet Prince (2010), Kathleen McGowan portrays him equally an enemy of the Tuscan people in their pursuit of artistic fame during his reign.
Savonarola's life story is explored in the novel Fanatics (2011) by William Bell and his ghost plays an important office in the story.
In Showtime's The Borgias, Savonarola is a recurring character in the two start seasons and is portrayed by Steven Berkoff. His burning takes identify in the episode The Confession.
In the Netflix serial Borgia, Savonarola is portrayed past Iain Glen in season 2 (2013).
Savonarola is a character in Canadian playwright Hashemite kingdom of jordan Tannahill's 2016 play Botticelli in the Burn down.^[66]
In the Rai Fiction serial Medici, Savonarola is portrayed by Francesco Montanari in season 2 (2018).
The historical fantasy and alternate history novel Lent (2019) past Jo Walton is a retelling" of Savonarola's life.

References [edit]

^ "Savonarola". Academy of Oregon. Winter 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
^ "Girolamo Savonarola" in The Cosmic Encyclopedia
^ Ridolfi, Roberto (1 Jan 2011). "Britannica: Girolamo Savonarola". Britannica. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
^ "Savonarola, Girolamo" (US) and "Savonarola, Girolamo". Oxford Dictionaries UK English language Dictionary. Oxford University Press. northward.d. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
^ "Savonarola". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
^ "Savonarola". Merriam-Webster Lexicon . Retrieved 31 May 2019.
^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church building, Volume VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org . Retrieved 17 November 2021.
^ Weinstein, Donald (22 November 2011). Savonarola The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Prophet. European History Quarterly. Vol. 47. Yale University Press. p. 122. doi:10.1177/0265691417711663at. ISBN978-0-300-11193-four. S2CID 151049961.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI: The Centre Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org . Retrieved 17 November 2021.
^ "English language translations in Savonarola A Guide to Righteous Living and Other Works ed. Konrad Eisenbichler (Toronto, Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2003) 61–68
^ , Gianfrancesco Pico Della Mirandola, Vita Hieronymi Savonarolae ed. Elisabetta Schisto (Florence, 1999) 114.
^ Reported by fra Benedetto Luschino in his Vulnera Diligentis ed. Stefano Dall' Aglio (Florence, 2002) pp. 22–33, 301.
^ "Similar you, I am fabricated of flesh and my sensuality wars against my reason; I take a cruel fight to go along the devil from my back." Translated from Girolamo Savonarola, Lettere e Scritti apologetici eds. Ridolfi, Romano, Verde (Rome, 1984), p. half dozen.
^ La Vita del Beato Girolamo Savonarola ed. Roberto Ridolfi (Florence, 1937) p. eight.
^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Book VI: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org . Retrieved 17 November 2021.
^ Michael Tavuzzi O.P., "Savonarola and Vincent Bandello," Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum 59 (1999) 199–224.
^ Selected Writings of Girolamo Savonarola Organized religion and Politics, 1490–1498 Translated and edited by Anna Borelli and Maria Pastore Passaro (New Oasis, Yale University Press, 2006).
^ "He satisfied near no one either in his gestures or in his manner of speaking, as I who was in that location for all of Lent think. At the end in that location were fewer than 20-five people, men, women and children." Translated from "Epistola di fra Placido Cinozzi", in P. Villari, E. Casanova, Scelta di prediche e scritti di fra Girolamo Savonarola con nuovi documenti intorno alla sua vita (Florence, 1898) p. eleven.
^ Armando F. Verde O.P., "'Et andando a San Gimignano a predicarvi.' Alle origini della profezia savonaroliana", Vivens Human IX (1998) pp. 269–298.
^ Donald Weinstein, Savonarola The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Prophet (New Haven, 2011) pp. 36–seven
^ Translation of alphabetic character from fra Girolamo to his mother, 25 January 1490, Girolamo Savonarola, A Guide to Righteous Living and Other Works, Konrad Eisenbichler (Toronto, 2003) 38–41.
^ William G. Craven, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola: Symbol of His Age: Modern Interpretations of a Renaissance Philosopher (Geneva, Switzerland, 1981).
^ Tavuzzi, "Savonarola and Vincenzo Bandello," 216-17.
^ "Le lezioni o i sermoni sull' Apocalisse di Girolamo Savonarola (1490) 'nova dicere et novo modo, '"ed. Armando F. Verde O.P., Imagine east Parola, Retorica Filologica-Retorica Predicatoria (Valla due east Savonarola) Memorie Domenicane, n.s.(1988) v–109
^ Weinstein, Savonarola, Ascension and Autumn of a Renaissance Prophet pp. 87–96.
^ David Abulafia, The French Descent into Renaissance Italy (Aldershot, 1995).
^ Quoted in Donald Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence Prophecy and Patriotism in the Renaissance (Princeton University Press, 1970) 143. On Florentine civic mythology, Nicolai Rubinstein, "The Beginnings of Political Idea in Florence. A Written report in Medieval Historiography," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes (5, 1942) 198–227; Hans Businesswoman, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance 2nd ed. (Princeton University Press, 1966).
^ On Savonarola and Florentine constitutional reform see Felix Gilbert, "Florentine Political Assumptions in the Catamenia of Savonarola and Soderini," Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes XII (1957) 187–214, and Nicolai Rubinstein, "Politics and Constitution in Florence at the Terminate of the Fifteenth Century," Italian Renaissance Studies ed. Eastward.F. Jacob (London, 1963). The Frateschi's success in blocking patricians from property part has been questioned, most notably by Roslyn Cooper, "The Florentine Ruling Group under the 'Governo Popolare', 1494–1512," Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History (1984/v) 71–181.
^ English translation in Borelli, Passaro, Selected Writings of Girolamo Savonarola 59–76.
^ Mark J. Zucker, "Savonarola Designs a Work of Fine art: the Crown of The Virgin in the Compendium of Revelations," Machiavelli Studies 5 (1966) eds Vincenzo De Nardo, Christopher Fulton pp.119–145 ; Rab Hatfield, "Botticelli's Mystic Nativity, Savonarola and the Millennium," Periodical of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 58 (1995) 89–114.
^ "Political reform was simply a part of the great chore which Savonarola had gear up himself; his scheme embraced the renovation of social life, as well as science, literature, and art. Christianity was to reassert its sovereignty over the paganism of the imitation renaissance in every department of life. His 'Evviva Christo' was to echo from lip to lip. Politics, society, scientific discipline and fine art, were to have the commandments of God for their basis. Christ was to be proclaimed Rex of Florence and protector of her liberties." – Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 5, p. 192, [1]
^ "He aimed at establishing a theocracy in Florence, resembling that by which the Jews were ruled in the time of the Judges. Thus the religious thought took form in politics, and a monarchy was to be erected by the commonwealth, nether the immediate guidance of God; Savonarola, as the Daniel of the Florentines, was to exist the medium of the Divine answers and commands." – Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 5, p. 210, [2]
^ "'It was not Art itself which he condemned, but its desecration, the introduction of earthly and even immodest sentiments and dress into sacred pictures. On the contrary, pious and genuinely religious fine art would have been an efficacious support in building up that platonic State which he dreamt of, and for a while even made a reality.' Over again and over again Savonarola explains what he finds error with in contemporary Art, and what he desires to put in place of information technology. For him edification is the main object of Art; he volition tolerate none which does not tend to the service of religion." – Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. 5, p. 195, [three]
^ On homoeroticism in Florence and Savonarola's campaign against information technology, Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence (New York, 1996). More generally, on youth civilisation, see Richard Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance Florence (New York, 1980).
^ "Compendium of Revelations," translated in Apocalyptic Spirituality: Treatises and Letters of Lactantius, Adso of Montier-en-Der, Joachim of Fiore, the Franciscan Spirituals, Savonarola ed. Bernard McGinn (New York, 1970) 211–270.
^ English translation of a Benivieni laud in Borelli, Passaro, Selected Writings of Girolamo Savonarola 231-iii.
^ Patrick Macey, Bonfire Songs Savonarola'due south Musical Legacy (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998). Published with a CD of performances of Carnival Songs, Laude and Motets by the Eastman Capella Antiqua.
^ Houston, Chloë (24 Feb 2016). The Renaissance Utopia: Dialogue, Travel and the Ideal Social club. Routledge. ISBN978-ane-317-01798-i.
^ ^a ^b Dehsen, Christian von (xiii September 2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge. p. 169. ISBN978-one-135-95102-3. Martin Luther, the German reformer, may have been influenced by Savonarola'southward teachings on the doctrine of justification, his emphasis on private religion, and compassion for the poor. A statue of the Italian was erected in Luther's hometown of Wittenberg.
^ ^a ^b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Savonarola, Girolamo". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Printing.
^ ^a ^b "How did Savonarola influence the Reformation and Counter-Reformation - DailyHistory.org". dailyhistory.org . Retrieved four December 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume Vi: The Middle Ages. A.D. 1294-1517 - Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org . Retrieved 24 December 2021.
^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Girolamo Savonarola". www.newadvent.org . Retrieved ix Dec 2021.
^ Brief of Pope Alexander Six excommunicating Savonarola: The History of Girolamo Savonarola and of His Times, Pasquale Villari, Leonard Horner, trans., London, Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Dark-green, 1863, Volume 2, pp.392–394.
^ Girolamo Savonarola, Triumphus Crucis Latin and Italian texts ed. Mario Ferrara (Rome, 1961)
^ Lauro Martines, Lawyers and Statecraft in Renaissance Florence (Princeton, 1968) pp. 202–203
^ Complete interrogation records in I processi di Girolamo Savonarola (1498) ed. I.M. Rao, P. Viti, R.M. Zaccaria (Florence, 2001); French translation and commentary, Robert Klein, Le proces de Savonarole (Paris, 1957)
^ Girolamo Savonarola, Prison Meditations on Psalms 51 and 31 Tr., ed. John Patrick Donnelly S.J. (Milwaukee, Marquette University Printing, 1994).
^ An eyewitness account by the Piagnone Luca Landucci in A Florentine Diary from 1460 to 1516 trans. Alice De Rosen Jervis (London, 1927) pp. 142–143.
^ Lorenzo Polizzotto, "When Saints Fall Out: Women and the Savonarolan Reform Motion in Early Sixteenth Century Florence," Renaissance Quarterly 46 (1993) 486–525; Sharon T. Strocchia, "Savonarolan Witnesses: the Nuns of San Iacopo and the Piagnone Motion in Sixteenth-century Florence," The Sixteenth Century Periodical 38 (2007), 393–418; Tamar Herzig, Savonarola'southward Women: Visions and Reform in Renaissance Italian republic (Academy of Chicago Press,2008); Strocchia, Nuns and Nunneries in Renaissance Florence (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
^ Polizzotto, The Elect Nation, Chapters 5–8; Weinstein, Savonarola The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Prophet, Chapter 25.
^ Cecil Roth, The Concluding Florentine Republic (London, 1925).
^ "Concerning New Principalities Which Are Acquired by One's Own Arms and Power", The Prince by Machiavelli "Archived re-create". Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived re-create every bit title (link)
^ Weinstein, Savonarola Rise and Fall, 360, annotation 26, drawing on works in German (Nolte) and Italian (Simoncelli and Dall' Aglio).
^ Lorenzo Polizzotto, The Elect Nation p. 443.
^ Pasquale Villari, The Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola trans. by Linda Villari 2 vols (New York, 1890).
^ Joseph Schnitzer, Savonarola Ein Kulturbild aus der Zeit der Renaissance 2 vols (Munich, 1924); Italian translation Savonarola trans. Ernesto Rutili 2 vols (Milan, 1931). No English translation.
^ Roberto Ridolfi, Vita di Girolamo Savonarola 6th ed. with additional notes by Armando F. Verde O.P. (Florence, 1981.)
^ Innocenzo Venchi, O.P. "Iniziative dell'Ordine Domenicano per promuovere la causa di beatificazione del Ven. fra Girolamo Savonarola O.P.," Studi Savonaroliani Verso il V centenario ed. Gian Carlo Garfagnini (Florence, 1996) pp. 93–97
^ Grove's Dictionary, 5th ed.
^ Lenau, Nicolaus (1837). Savonarola ein Gedicht (in German). J.Chiliad. Cotta. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
^ Eliot, George (2005). Romola. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Printing. ISBNane-55111-757-half-dozen.
^ "Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek". portal.dnb.de.
^ Herrmann, Bernhard (7 Dec 2013). Kreutzmann, Felix (ed.). Savonarola im Feuer (in High german). p. 162.
^ Savonarola: A Biography in Dramatic Episodes. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. 10 September 2010. ISBN978-i-162-61143-3.
^ Tannahill, Hashemite kingdom of jordan (7 November 2019). Botticelli in the Fire (Main ed.). Faber & Faber. p. 112. ISBN978-0-571-36016-1.

External links [edit]

Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Girolamo Savonarola
Predica dell'arte del bene morire From the Rare Volume and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Savonarola'southward Visions, documentary about Girolamo Savonarola

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Savonarola

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